The Heyday of Chinese Drama Literature
(1279–1369)
Northern China was under the dominance of
the Mongol warlike nomad-civilization from c. 1215 onwards, and the whole country came under
Mongol rule in 1279.
During this new dynasty, the Yuan (Yüan), the Chinese
themselves became despised in their own country. Lowest was the status of the
inhabitants of the regions south of the Yangzi River, although the region had been both
economically and culturally very important.
The
institution of imperial examinations for scholar-officials, so crucial for the
administration and cultural life of the empire, was abolished. Thus the scholar
officials could no longer participate in the country’s affairs. In former times
the Confucian literati formed the elite, but now they were regarded as one
class lower than prostitutes and only a grade higher than beggars. The
foundation of Chinese society was shaking.
Yuan zaju
Many
of the frustrated scholar-officials focused their energy on the arts. The
theatrical styles shaped in the Song dynasty became extremely popular. Through the
theatre one was able to explore matters common to all: the cruelty of the
conquerors, the tragedies of the war, the separation of families or lovers etc.
While reflecting the collective sentiments, theatre was able to serve as a form
of passive resistance
Censorship
was, however, merciless. In order to avoid the death penalty, which was the
result of any kind of direct criticism, the writers turned for their material
to old stories from the country’s long history or to popular legends and to
early, simple plays. The underlying message was, however, clear to their
audiences.
The
scholar-writers of the Yuan dynasty created high-quality dramatic literature,
which is still regarded as classic and is still performed in various later
styles. They are shorter than the earlier zaju plays. They usually consist of four acts and sometimes
kinds of “prologues” or “interludes”, which, however, form an integral part of
the whole. More role categories were employed by the Yuan dramas than the
earlier zaju and nanxi traditions. They include
Yuan zaju play scripts
The
names of about a hundred Yuan dramatists have come down to us, and the titles
of seven hundred plays are known. The flourish of Yuan drama centred mainly in
North China and the then capital, Beijing. The Yuan plays were written to be
sung and acted. The language used was mainly the vernacular of its day but the
sung “arias” employed sophisticated lyrics. 171 complete Yuan dramas are known
today.
The
northern zaju was the style in
which these four-act dramas were performed. The music also presented the Yuan zaju style, which
unfortunately is lost. At the beginning, one of the supporting characters
explained the plot to the audience, after which the leading actors appeared.
Only the leading actors sang. Singing, acting, mime and drama merged together,
forming an operatic whole.
The
most famous of the Yuan dramatists were “The Four Yuan-Period Masters”, Guan
Hanqing (Kuan Han-ch’ing), Ma Zhiyan (Ma Chih-yüan), Bai Pu (Pai P’u), and
Zheng Guangzun (Cheng Kuan-tsun). The earliest of them, Guan Hanqing, is
regarded as the “Father of Chinese Dramatic Literature”. Another important Yuan
period dramatist was Wang Shifu (Wang Shih-fu), who wrote the famous Romance of the Western Chamber, Xixiang ji
(Hsi-hsiang chi).
Guang
Hanqing or the “Father of Chinese Dramatic Literature” often portrayed in his
crime stories, as did also other Yuan dramatists, mistreated prostitutes and
beauties in distress. One of the most famous plays of this genre is Guan
Hanqing’s Dou E yuan (Tou Eh yüan),
Most
of the Yuan dramatists came, as mentioned, from the class of the
scholar-officials. Bai Pu (1226–1306) was a son of an impoverished civil
servant family. His best-known play is Wutong
yu (Wu-t’ung yü) or Rain on the Pawlonia Tree. It tells
the tragic story of the love of the Tang emperor Ming Huang and his concubine
Yang Guifei amid the political intrigues and power play while the Tang dynasty
was nearing its end.
Besides
historical stories, stories about the supernatural also often served as the
material on which the Yuan dramas were based. One example of an early
Taoist-inspired ghost opera is Qiannü
lihun (Ch’ian-nü li-hun) or Ciannun
sielu irtoaa ruumiista (synopsis).
It was written by Zheng Guangzun (1280–1330) and is based on a story from the
Tang period. Yuan dramatis could explore several story genres. Ma Zhiyuan is
famous for his Taoist themes, but his well-known play Hangong qiu (Han-kung ch’iu) or Autumn in Han Palace, is based on an ancient, tragic love story
with patriotic overtones (synopsis).
It has been one of the most beloved Yuan drama
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